Learning Theories and E-Learning

Diana Stein   AET/541   March 10, 2014   Dr. Sean Spear

Designers of effective instructional online content for adult learners must consider how their learners optimally receive and process information. Learning is based essentially on three learning theories behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. It is important to have a basic understanding of these learning theories, how these learning theories evolved, and how adults think to proficiently plan, deliver, and assess instructional material. The methods used in the teaching-learning interaction must convey the content of the course to the students through motivating and engaging means. “The coursework must be effective, rigorous, yet interesting online” (Simonson, 2008). 
The following information provides an overview of behaviorist, cognitivist, and constructivist learning theories, and examples of how each may be utilized in progressive e-learning instructional design.

The A, B, C’s of Behaviorist Learning Theory
Learning in the 1950’s and 1960’s was based on behaviorist theories. Behaviorist B.F. Skinner derived the Reinforcement Theory, one of the oldest theories of motivation as way to explain behavior and why we do what we do. The theory states, “an individual’s behavior is a function of its consequences” (Stravedes, 2011). The learner is more passive in this learning model, and the instructor administers the consequences of reward or punishment. The concept of Behaviorism is based on “observable changes in behavior”. An example that determines the behavior of the online student is the instructor’s definition of learning objectives, with attached specified, quantifiable, and terminal behaviors to the goals. Although learners may receive high measurable marks, the actual knowledge that has been transferred from short-term to long-term memory is questionable if this theory is used in isolation.

Cognitive Learning Theory
In the late 1960s and 1970s psychology moved from the study of behavior to the study of the mind, and cognitivism emerged as a new theory of how learning occurs. Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner were instrumental cognitive theorists. According to cognitivism, knowledge is still considered to exist outside of the person; however, its focus is understanding how human memory works to acquire knowledge and promote learning (Stravedes, 2011). Cognitivist theorists take into account additional concepts like prior knowledge, information structure, and mnemonic effects. Instructional designers of e-learning implement knowledge of cognitive functioning through task analysis. Informational components and tasks are “chunked” into subgroups sequentially from simple to complex to aid in long-term memory retention. Methods of learning for each learner may not be easily measured using this learning model, because it requires more open-ended learning experiences. Communication with the online professor, as well as with cohorts will establish community, build concept understanding, and aid the facilitator in informal student assessment. The professor is able to collaborate with the student online using either e-mail or the discussion board. Goals and expectations of each student are clearly outlined and followed through use of these tools.

               

Constructivist Learning Theory
Constructivism became popular in the 1980s. Lev Vygotsky and Benjamin Bloom (of Bloom’s Taxonomy) were instrumental constructivist theorists. Constructivist theory describes learning as a process in which learners construct knowledge and meaning by integrating prior knowledge, beliefs, and experiences. According to this theory, knowledge does not exist outside of the person but is constructed based on how a person interacts with the environment and experiences the world (Tennyson & Schott, 1997). Control of the environment is not a focus of the constructivist theory of learning. Instead, it emphasizes the synthesis and integration of knowledge and skills into an individual’s experiences. This theory addresses some of the limitations of other learning theories that emphasize components instead of integrated wholes” (Stavredes, 2012, p. 37).

How information is learned and processed is critical to learning. Students will benefit by identifying and actively controlling specific learning systems that he or she finds personally effective for long-term memory enhancement (e.g., mnemonics, flashcards, chants, etc.). Thinking about thinking, metacognition, supports information processing by actively controlling what learners think they can learn. Specific learning strategies can be put in place to attend to incoming information, draw on knowledge in long-term memory, and store information into meaningful schemata.

Instructions based on the constructivist theory alone would have many hyperlinks to reference different sources of background information. While this would be ideal for the experienced student in the specific subject area of study, too much information could easily overwhelm and frustrate a novice of this field of study. Too much information that is offered simultaneously may cause cognitive overload.  Cognitive load is referred to our working memory that “refers to structures and processes for temporarily storing and managing information in short-term memory… Learners with poor thinking skills have more difficulty in the online learning environment because their ability to process information effectively may be hindered by environmental and emotional factors. This can lead learners to feeling overwhelmed, frustrated, anxious, and a number of other emotions that can diminish motivation and ultimately cause a learner to drop the course” (Stavredes, 2012, p. 43-45).

           
Emotions and Learning

The facilitator can reduce stress and anxiety by checking in on students. Two things that instructional designers can do to aid learners in building memory capacity are to guide them to construct and automate personal schemas. This is done by sequencing instruction on the site in such ways to allow the learner to chunk specific groups of information. Through repetition of use the information transfers from short-term to long-term memory becoming automatic. Examples of this sort of automacity in real life are reading, riding a bike, driving a car, etc. “When multiple elements of information are chunked as single elements, there is more working memory capacity available for solving problems and processing information” (“The eLearning Coach”, n.d.).

Learning Styles

Learning theories and learning styles work systematically. Two cognitive learning styles that influence how we learn are Field Dependent and Field Independent. “Field dependent people cannot separate the parts from the whole, whereas field independent people are able to see the individual components of a perceptual field.

Learners who are field independent are perceived as analytical because of their ability to separate the parts from the whole, whereas field dependent learners perceive things more globally” (Stavredes, 2012, p. 54).

Cognitive learning style refers to ‘‘an individual’s characteristic and consistent approach to organizing and processing information’’ (Tennant, 1997, p. 80). There are numerous classifications of these styles; however, according to Tennant (1997), two dominant approaches are the Field Dependence/Independence dimension by Witkin (1950) and the Kolb Learning Style Inventory (Kolb, 1976)” (Stavredes, 2012, p. 52).

The global learner typically enjoys working in groups, prefers open-ended questions, relate things they learn to their personal life, and are good at multi-tasking. These students are more comfortable in a flexible, learning environment.

The analytical learner prefers working alone, likes multiple choice questions, is very comfortable in a structured, ordered environment and generally finishes one thing before beginning another. These students appreciate a well-structured learning environment.

According to Creighton University, discussion boards can be used well to bridge the differences between the global learner and the analytical learner. An on line discussion board allows the analytical learner to think about the question and format an answer, but still allows the global learner to answer spontaneously. The questions can be designed to solicit responses that demonstrate a global learner’s understanding of the whole picture while other questions would require of the analytical learner, an expression of the components of the concept.

Material posted on line can begin with an introduction paragraph that provides an overview of the concept, which benefits the global learner. The material can also be designed to provide tables, charts and graphs to assist the analytical learner (“Educational Tools”, n.d.).

Cognitive Load

The online classroom can be a daunting idea for learners who do not have much experience using technology. The vocabulary, and getting around the site can be intimidating for newbies. The stress of sorting through all of the information can make it difficult to concentrate, especially if too much information is presented at the same time. “According to Sweller and Chandler (1994), there are two sources of cognitive overload that have implications for instruction – intrinsic cognitive overload and extrinsic cognitive overload – which are illustrated in Figure 5.2” (Stavredes, 2012, p. 51).

Intrinsic cognitive load- Intrinsic cognitive load relates to the complexity of the learning content, as well as the schemata that learners have constructed, and cannot be controlled by design.

Extraneous cognitive load- Extraneous cognitive load is imposed by the design and the organization of the learning materials and has a negative impact on learning; therefore, it should be reduced to maximize learning.

If the materials being taught are difficult, then intrinsic cognitive load is high, so the amount of content that is presented and the structure in which it is presented should be simple to reduce extraneous cognitive load. Two sources of extraneous cognitive load that cost learners time and effort are split attention and redundancy. Split attention occurs when the learner has to focus on multiple sources of information. Redundancy occurs when learners process duplicate information from different sources. “The more you can eliminate redundant materials and arrange information to avoid splittingthe learner’s attention, the greater the opportunity for learning to occur” (Stavredes, 2012, p. 51).

In general a blend of all three learning theories behavioral, cognitivism, and constructivism are beneficial throughout various parts of the ideal online course. The  elements of effective course design for e-learning for adult learners are thoughfully integrated considering cognition, learning styles, and site architecture. As learners become increasingly familiar with site operations and navigations, the content is more easily accessed for building personal connections. Site architecture must support learners' schematic structure building.

An effective blended on-line classroom provides learners with time and spaces to brainstorm. Students may be given a task and then brainstorm a solution individually as well as collectively in learning teams. Each team member researches and then offers their perspective within the online classroom to give their findings and get feedback from each other. This accommodates converging learners by allowing many perspectives, working in a group, brainstorming and providing real life scenarios. They are also given the time to gather the information they need to generate their ideas. This brainstorming and collaboration could be done synchronously (using a virtual classroom tool) or asynchronously (using a discussion board tool) (“Educational Tools”, n.d.).

Instructional design techniques, learning theory, and technical tools for e-learning activities must be logically and intuitively sequenced. Challenges associated with planning the perfect e-learning environment are not limited to content confusion or cognitive overload. Internet tools required for use with tasks and activities must be reliable and compatible with all browsers and platforms. To optimally facilitate learning the instructional designer must provide learners with clear learning objectives, and multiple paths to build content knowledge.  Logical, creative, and constructive learning environments create opportunities for collaboration with fellow learners. 

Conclusion

We have examined three paradigm shifts in educational theories over the past half-century. As these shifts developed technology emerged. It is likely that we will continue to see technology experience paradigm shifts as well. Educational technology has been traditionally considered a change agent in educational development and design. We are beginning to see the impact of neuroscience, linguistics, and artificial intelligence on learning. These developments will undoubtedly build a closer relationship between semiotics, literature, art, and music.

           

According to Saettler (2004), “New and exciting paradigm shifts are currently evolving in educational technology. For example, Guellette sees the emergency of what he calls psychotechnology. Psychotechnology will focus on the management and control of psychological processes of the learner and may include such supporting learning strategies as anxiety reduction, biofeedback, meditation, music, relaxation training, and yoga.”

A clear understanding of theories, and how each specific learner thinks to learn, must be firmly in place to proficiently plan, deliver, and assess instructional e-learning content. Instructional designers must reduce redundant cognitive load caused by poor course design or learning material. The end result of the well-planned e-learning site is rigorously engaged learners intuitively navigating for optimal learning.

References

Haythornwaite, C., & Andrews, R. (2011). E-learning theory & practice . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Saettler, P. (2004). The eveolution of american educational technology (2nd ed.).     Greenwich, Connecticut: Information Age Publishing.

Stavredes, T. (2012). Effective online teaching. Foundations and strategies for student success. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

The eLearning Coach. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://theelearningcoach.com/learning/what is-cognitive-load/ https://people.creighton.edu/~abs40223/matrix_2/index.htm

Simonson, M. (Writer). (2008). Designing the perfect online course, Journal Volume 5, Number 3, 2008 [Audio podcast]. Retrieved from University of Phoenix website