Change Your Mind, Change Your Life!

We all need positive reinforcement to stay focused and driving toward our goals. The question is, what drives you? This blog entry will describe five major motivational theories at work each time we are invited to participate in school, or in life. As a teacher my primary goal is to advocate for learning. Sounds easy enough, right? Sometimes.

Well, keep in mind that each of us has free will. And, each of us has a handful of talent in a specific area or another. These areas soon dominate our behaviors, while our weaker areas become atrophied. Self- doubt soon creeps in and soon we might even begin to label ourselves as "good" or "bad" at entire subject areas! The truth is if we are curious and interested in the path that we are on we have the power to build skills in weaker areas of intelligences. Why? Because we choose to. So, how do we build motivation in students who are reluctant learners? What about negative self-talk? Self doubt about ability will cripple even the most gifted among us.

Beliefs About Ability

Rate the following statements taken from Dweck (2000) on a scale 

from 1 (Strongly Agree) to 6 (Strongly Disagree).

• ___ You have a certain amount of intelligence and you really can’t do much to change it.
• ___ You can learn new things, but you can’t really change your basic intelligence.
• ___ No matter who you are, you can change your intelligence a lot.
• ___ No matter how much intelligence you have, you can always change it quite a bit.

Some of the most powerful beliefs affecting motivation in school are about ability. By examining these beliefs and how they affect motivation, we will understand why some people set inappropriate, unmotivating goals; why some students adopt self-defeating strategies; and why some students seem to give up altogether. Adults use two basic concepts of ability (Dweck, 1999, 2002). An entity view of ability assumes that ability is a stable, uncontrollable trait—a characteristic of the individual that cannot be changed. According to this view, some people have more ability than others, but the amount each person has is set. An incremental view of ability, on the other hand, suggests that ability is unstable and controllable—“an ever-expanding repertoire of skills and knowledge” (Dweck & Bempechat, 1983, p. 244). By hard work, study, or practice, knowledge can be increased and thus ability can be improved. What is your view of ability? Look back at your answers to the questions above—you can tell.

Young children tend to hold an exclusively incremental view of ability. Through the early elementary grades, most students believe that effort is the same as intelligence. Smart people try hard and trying hard makes you smart. If you fail, you aren’t smart and you didn’t try hard; if you succeed, you must be a smart, hard worker (Stipek, 2002). Children are age 11 or 12 before they can differentiate among effort, ability, and performance. About this time, they come to believe that someone who succeeds without working at all must be really smart. This is when beliefs about ability begin to influence motivation (Anderman & Maehr, 1994).

Instructional Leadership: A Research-Based Guide to Learning in School, 3e

Chapter 5: Motivation

ISBN: 9780205578443 Authors: Anita Woolfolk Hoy, Wayne Kolter Hoy

Copyright © Pearson Education (2009)

5 Approaches to Motivation

Over the decades a compelling amount of research has been conducted and gathered regarding the significance surround the following five approaches to motivation:

• Behavioral
• Humanistic
• Cognitive
• Social cognitive
• Sociocultural

The essential question that any educator must ask oneself is, “What approach should be used?” directly followed by, “When should it be used?”  Educators have  potentially high impact if their emotional quotient (EQ) is in direct alignment to their student(s) chosen intelligences. We have any number of areas where we are each intellectually smart. 

IMAGE: http://www.connectionsacademy.com/blog/posts/2013-01-18/Understanding-Your-Student-s-Learning-Style-The-Theory-of-Multiple-Intelligences.aspx

Educators, and schools, are either effective or ineffective. A school that is effective as a whole has a very positive impact on individual achievement. The collectiveness of a school’s approach will have a direct correlation to the overall success of the individual students.  Additionally, incorporating a variety of approaches to motivation will directly impact the effectiveness of overall student programming, academic, socially, and socioculturally.

A comprehensive and collaborative plan utilizing the following five approaches to motivation increase the probability of student motivation:

	Behavioral	Humanistic	Cognitive	Social Cognitive	Sociocultural
Source of Motivation	Extrinsic	Intrinsic	Intrinsic	Intrinsic and Extrinsic	Intrinsic
Important Influences	Reinforcers, rewards, incentives, and punishers	Need for self-esteem, self-fulfillment, and self-determination	Beliefs, attributions for success and failure, expectations	Goals, expectations, intentions, self-efficacy	Engaged participation in learning communities: maintaining identity through participation in activities of group
Key Theorists	Skinner	Maslow Deci	Weiner Graham	Locke & Latham Bandura	Lave Wenger

Source: From Anita E. Woolfolk, Educational Psychology: Active Learning Edition, 10/e. Published by Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education. 

       It's worth mentioning that:    

•  Performance goals set by students include reaching his or her personal best. Progress will be measured incrementally toward meeting individual academic benchmarks.

• Assessment may be informal and/or formal through ongoing observation and also by factoring in summative assessment.

How to introduce a plan utilizing the behavioral theory:

Explain that rewards and consequences may be used to manage and modify student behavior.  Habits are learned behaviors. So, this means that they may also be “unlearned.” Behavior modification takes time, and it takes desire. The desire to change ones behavior depends on the results or consequences that are possible. The end result is that the student learns that he or she has control over both the earning either rewards, or consequences dependent on the ability to self-control. In the end, procrastination becomes an undesirable habit. If any reward or incentive systems are used, make sure participants (teachers or students) understand that the goal is to learn and improve in some area, not just to perform well or look smart. And be sure the goal is not too difficult. Individual students or teachers may not yet be expert at setting their own goals or keeping the goal in mind, so encouragement and accurate feedback are necessary (Hoy, 2009).

Rewards Reinforcer:

Punishment / Consequences:

IMAGE: https://winecountrymom.files.wordpress.com/2014/06/the-village-chore-points-list.jpg

A chart like the one above may used as an example to customize and personalize for home or classroom use.

 How to introduce a plan utilizing the humanistic theory:

There are many theories surround the topic of achievement and motivation. A humanistic view of behavior motivation recognizes the need for self-esteem, self-fulfillment, and self-determination. The source of motivation in the humanistic view of motivation is intrinsic. According to Schunk (2000):

Some psychologists see achievement motivation as a stable and unconscious trait, something the individual has more or less of. Children who see that their actions can have an impact and who are taught how to recognize a good performance are more likely to grow up with the desire to excel (Hoy, 2009). 

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Explain that the goal is to improve in some area, and that the goal is not too difficult. Every step toward concept attainment is a step forward, even if a first or second attempt didn’t succeed. Remind students that failure signals that more effort is needed, and does not signal that it’s time to quit. Everyone has certain strengths and weaknesses.  Encourage students to use their strengths to build up their weaknesses.

 How to introduce a plan utilizing the cognitive theory:

“Students and teachers are more likely to work toward goals that are clear, specific, reasonable, moderately challenging, and attainable within a relatively short period of time,” (Hoy & Hoy, 2009). Goal setting at the onset of the school year is most important. The goals that teachers set need to be clear and specific, and attainable. Martin Covington (1992) maintains that individual student goals are most effective when students are involved in setting them (Marzano, 2003).

The cognitive view to approaching behavior is based on cognitive drivers with intrinsic motivators that are influenced by beliefs, attributions for success and failure, and expectations. According to Stipek, 2002:

Other theorists see achievement motivation as a set of conscious beliefs and values shaped mainly by recent experiences with success and failure and by factors in the immediate situation such as the difficulty of the task or the incentives available (Hoy, 2009). 

Explain that behavior needs to be monitored to be certain that working integrity remains high, and the cheating or self-defeating actions doe not undermine student success (Hoy, 2009. Anderman & Maehr, 1994). 

How to introduce a plan utilizing the social cognitive theory:

“What choices do people make about their behavior? Motivation is either internal or external. Internal motivation is personal factors such as needs, interests, curiosity and enjoyment. External motivation is environmental factors such as rewards, social pressure, and punishment” (Hoy, 2009).  Students make choices about their behavior based on a grade, rewards, needs, or advancement. Advancement may take the form of knowledge, or it may be related to social status. Belonging to a particular group or another carries social stigmas, whether we intend for these stigmas to exist or not.

IMAGE: http://www.dominatethegmat.com/2013/10/from-550-to-710-in-3-months-a-gmat-success-story/

Explain that the goal is to improve in some area, and not just to perform well or to appear to be smart. Reinforce that predictors based on past performance are best minimized. Every opportunity to learn is a new opportunity to see things in new ways. Henry Ford once said, “Whether you believe you can, or you believe you can’t– you’re right.”

How to introduce a plan utilizing the sociocultural theory:

Atkinson’s view of behavior motivation is based on social cognitive and sociocultural motivators, and is highly influenced by both intrinsic and extrinsic drivers.

Atkinson (1964) added a new consideration to the theory of achievement need when he noted that all people have a need to avoid failure as well as a need to achieve. If the need to avoid failure is greater than the need to achieve in a particular situation, the risk will be threatening rather than challenging, and the resultant motivation will be to avoid the situation (Hoy, 2009).

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Encourage intrinsic drivers through recognizing the value of knowledge for the sake of knowledge. Concept mastery is the goal, as opposed to social hierarchy or positioning.

How to Implement these Strategies at Home and at School

So, now that you have a better understanding about the five major theories surrounding behavior modification the time has come to put them into action. Any action plan needs to be measurable in order to capture whether results have been gained. The chart below is a great way to get started on personalizing your own progress towards goals. 

Theory into Action Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships

Understand family goals for children.

Examples

1.      In an informal setting, around a coffee pot or snacks, meet with families individually or in small groups to listen to what they want for their children.

2.      Mail out questionnaires or send response cards home with students, asking what skills the families believe their children most need to work on. Pick one goal for each child and develop a plan for working toward the goal both inside and outside school. Share the plan with the families and ask for feedback.

Identify student and family interests that can be related to goals.

Examples

1.      Ask a member of the family to share a skill or hobby with the class.

2.      Identify “family favorites”—favorite foods, music, vacations, sports, colors, activities, hymns, movies, games, snacks, recipes, memories. Tie class lessons to interests.

Give families a way to track progress toward goals.

Examples

1.      Provide simple “progress charts” or goal cards that can be posted on the refrigerator.

2.      Ask for feedback (and mean it) about parents’ perceptions of your effectiveness in helping students reach goals.

In conclusion, keep in mind that it's important to set realistic goals. Sometimes this means setting up incremental goals along the way.  Keep track of your accomplishments by being accountable to someone that you trust. Remember to celebrate all accomplishments, both big and small along the way to keep motivation and spirit strong! 

References

Hoy, A. W., & Hoy, W. K. (2009). Instructional leadership: A research-based guide to   
       learning in schools (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

Marzano, R. J. (2003). What Works In Schools. Alexandria, Virginia: Association for
         Supervision and Curriculum Development.